18th and 19th Century

Eighteenth-century Britain saw the emergence of a new poetic genre, the “work” poem which took various forms of labor as its subject and was often written by laborers themselves. Several of these working class poets found their lives transformed due to the success of their verse (Stephen Duck most famously), but most faded into literary obscurity. However, a substantial body of “work” poems was produced by a diverse group of poets throughout the century, each manifesting divergent concerns and attitudes about the experience of work. This chapter assesses the formal connections uniting this poetic genre, particularly the frequent use of such literary devices as ironic distancing, litotes, and mock-georgic description. Instead of solely classifying “work” poems on the basis of their subject matter, this chapter demonstrates that such poetry (indeed the genre itself) lends itself to sophisticated literary techniques often associated with other poetic genres. In this fashion the full measure of eighteenth-century working class poetry can be evaluated more fairly, particularly by analyzing the formation of a new genre designed expressly by the poets themselves. The chapter ultimately seeks to demonstrate the connectedness, rather than the alienation, of working class poetry to the eighteenth-century British poetic tradition.

A 2017 Choice Outstanding Academic Title

In this volume, Elisabeth Fraser shows that artists and the works they created in the Mediterranean during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were informed by mutual dependence and reciprocity between European nations and the Ottoman Empire. Her rich exploration of this vibrant cross-cultural exchange challenges the dominant interpretation of European relations with the East during the period, revealing a shared world of fluid and long-sustained interactions.

Voyagers to and from the Ottoman Empire documented their journeys in prints, paintings, and lavishly illustrated travelogues; many of these helped define Europe’s self-identified role as heir to Ottoman civilizations and bolstered its presence in the Islamic Mediterranean and beyond. Fraser finds that these works illuminate not only how travelers’ experiences abroad were more nuanced than the expansionist ideology with which they became associated, but also how these narratives depicted the vitality of Ottoman culture and served as extensions of Ottoman diplomacy. Ottomans were aware of and responded to European representations, using them to defend Ottoman culture and sovereignty. In embracing the art of both cultures and setting these works in a broader context, Fraser challenges the dominant historiographical tradition that sees Ottoman artists adopting European modes of art in a one-sided process of “Europeanization.”

Theoretically informed and rigorously researched, this cross-cultural approach to European and Ottoman art sheds much-needed critical light on the widely disseminated travel images of the era—important cultural artifacts in their own right—and provides a fresh and inviting understanding of the relationships among cultures in the Mediterranean during an era of increasing European expansionism.
ISBN: 978-0-271-07320-0

The Area of a Parish as a Factor Generating Sources for Registering Certificates in the Deanery (Decanate) of Kazimierz at the Turn of the 18th and 19th Centuries

The article presents the problem of registering certificates of the congregation of the Kazimierz Deanery outside the native parish. According to the accepted hypothesis the scale of the phenomenon depended on the distance between the nearest church and the place of residence. The research has been based on many sources. In total, the author shave examined the certificates from 13 out of 15 parishes making up the deanery of Kazimierz in the 18th century and additionally a few neighbouring parishes. The collected material has been analysed with the use of the GIS instruments. The results suggest that the scale of the phenomenon was not big. In the case of baptisms, the median of the children baptised outside their native parish was at the level of 3.1. No clear correlation between the number of baptisms and the distance has been detected. On the basis of the results it is possible to conclude that the decisive role in the choice of the place of administering sacraments was the so-called parish coercion. In order to obtain more precise data it seems necessary to enlarge the research basis with certificates from other parishes of the Lublin Voivodeship and to take into consideration a bigger number of the variables that influenced the scale of registering outside the native parish in the statistical analysis.

_The Physiology of Love and Other Writings_ is the first English annotated collection of Mantegazza’s selected works. In my extensive introductory essay, Mantegazza’s hybrid contributions from fiction, travel-writing, and ethnography to physiology, medicine, and politics are reevaluated as instances of a proto-cultural-studies approach attuned to the cross-fertilization of disciplines and the circulation of ideas in a period of European intellectual history that defied the notion of specialization.
Table of contents:
The Physiology of Love
And Selections from:
On The Hygienic and Medicinal Virtues of the Coca Plant and on Nervine Nourishment in General
One Day in Madeira
A Voyage to Lapland with my Friend Stephen Sommier
India
Epicurus: Essay in a Physiology of the Beautiful
The Neurosic Century
The Tartuffe Century
Head: Or, Sowing Ideas to Create New Deeds
Political Memoirs of a Foot Soldier in the Italian Parliament
The Year 3000: A Dream
The Psychology of Translation

In the early modern town, the public peace was not simply kept by one institution. Individual citizens, corporations and (semi-)governmental bodies all policed the early modern city. I will analyze the transition of the traditional system of urban policing to the modern institution called ‘police’, roughly between 1795 and 1820. I shall centre my attention on Amsterdam, because this city served as a ‘test plot’ for the provincial and central authorities in those years. New regulations concerning policing were often tried out in Amsterdam before being applied to the rest of the country. On the one hand, this was the result of the reform policy of the Department of Holland that was eager to reform the police in all its cities, including Amsterdam. And on the other hand, Napoleonic administrators feared that Amsterdam’s population might rebel against the French. To what extent and in which way was Amsterdam’s traditional policing system – an amalgam of strictly local institutions – transformed into a centralized police force at the turn of the nineteenth century?

Costume albums and books depicting the diverse peoples of the Ottoman Empire were produced by Ottomans and Europeans respectively as early as the sixteenth century, defining geography, ethnicity, religion, occupation, and gender in the Ottoman Empire through costume. Mobile objects, costume collections circulated through transimperial networks in the Mediterranean. Long understood as an enticing example of cross-cultural exchange, these costume compendia have nonetheless been interpreted in a lopsided way. Despite the early appearance of Ottoman produced
costume miniatures, most of the still embryonic writing on images of Ottoman costume assumes the priority of European print examples. But European artisans of the book were not without knowledge of Ottoman work: Ottoman-produced costume miniatures circulated in Europe beginning already in the sixteenth century, and increasingly through the seventeenth and especially eighteenth centuries. My essay explores how a consideration of the materiality of the costume book and album – specifically texture, touch, and the practice of hand-coloring – shapes a cross-cultural reading of them, a reading that is reinforced by early modern cultural
constructions of color, especially in relation to textile and dress. This investigation defines cultural mediation as layered, discontinuous, and resulting from a multiplicity of points of contact and exchange.

Francesca Lui, Pomona 'picta' e 'descripta': Un itinerario nell’iconografia pomologica tra il XVI e il XX secolo attraverso le tecniche, in Miti, aere e scienza nella Pomologia italiana, a cura di Enrico Baldini, Roma, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 2008, pp. 37-62.

ABSTRACT in English (résumé en français ci-après):
This article (as all my other articles on Clausewitz) isn’t a discussion “around” the thoughts of Clausewitz, which would be first based on Clausewitz – an attractive name! – in order to speak thereafter in a prospective manner, as we see quite often. My article is an analysis focussed on what Clausewitz actually wrote in his lectures on the “kleinen Krieg” [I would say here “small war” to be short, even if I don’t like this translation]. The aim is, first, making a synthesis of the thoughts of Clausewitz on the relations between the “kleinen Krieg” and insurrectional wars; and, second, explaining the context of that days which underlain his thoughts, in order to better understand them: the context related to 1) the wars on which Clausewitz bases his speech, 2) the military culture of the officers of that days (and also the military culture of Clausewitz) and 3) the reflection of his time on the “kleinen Krieg” and on insurrectional wars.

Indeed, Prussia's military defeats in 1806 led in this country to a reflection on national defence, on the question of armed citizens, and on the “petite guerre” as the appropriate tactic for popular uprisings. The lecture upon the “petite guerre” that Clausewitz delivered at the War College in Berlin between 1810 and 1812 is part of this framework. Moreover, the Revolutionary War, which was an insurrection against the British homeland, is one of the examples Clausewitz did choose to feed his thinking, just like the Wars of the Vendée and the Tyrolean events during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars – which were other uprisings with insurrectional characteristics. In his lecture, Clausewitz doesn’t distinguish between the two words and the two realities of “petite guerre” and “guerrilla warfare”; however, he shows from time to time the particularities of the civil wars and of the wars with armed citizens. Our article studies the lecture on the “petite guerre” from Clausewitz with a new point of view, in order to point out the parts which are related to the popular wars and to the insurrections; indeed, as Raymond Aron expresses it, the thinking of Clausewitz has been built on watching how the extreme violence of passions could not be separated from people's wars.

RESUME en français :
Cet article (comme tous mes autres articles sur Clausewitz) n’est pas une discussion « autour » de la pensée de Clausewitz, qui partirait de Clausewitz – un nom porteur ! – pour parler de façon prospective, comme on le voit souvent. C’est une analyse centrée exclusivement sur ce que Clausewitz a écrit dans son "Cours sur la petite guerre". L’objectif est, premièrement, de saisir et de synthétiser la pensée de Clausewitz sur les rapports entre petite guerre et guerre insurrectionnelle ; et, deuxièmement, d’expliciter le contexte de l’époque qui a nourri cette réflexion, pour mieux la comprendre : le contexte concernant 1) les guerres sur lesquelles Clausewitz appuie son discours, 2) la culture militaire des officiers de ce temps (donc la sienne) et 3) la réflexion de son temps sur la petite guerre et la guerre insurrectionnelle.

Les défaites subies en 1806 engendrèrent en effet, en Prusse, une réflexion sur la défense nationale, sur l’armement du peuple, et sur la petite guerre comme tactique du peuple soulevé. Le « Cours sur la petite guerre » donné par Clausewitz à l’École supérieure de guerre de Berlin, entre 1810 et 1812, s’inscrit entres autres dans le fil de cette impulsion. Au reste, la guerre d’Indépendance américaine, insurrection contre la métropole anglaise, est au nombre des exemples choisis par Clausewitz pour alimenter sa réflexion, comme les guerres de Vendée et les épisodes tyroliens de la Révolution et de l’Empire, autres soulèvements à caractère insurrectionnel. Si Clausewitz n’opère pas pour ses auditeurs la distinction entre « petite guerre » et « guérilla », il pointe de temps à autre les particularismes des guerres civiles et des contextes guerriers avec armement du peuple. Cet article revisite le Cours sur la petite guerre de Clausewitz pour y relever la part redevable aux guerres populaires et aux insurrections, si tant est que, comme l’exprime Raymond Aron, la pensée de Clausewitz sur la guerre s’est construite en considérant le déchaînement des passions inhérent aux guerres populaires.

Leading members of the Lithuanian Musar movement loved Rabbi Menahem Mendel Lefin of Satanów’s method of character refinement. But did they know where it came from?

Benjamin Franklin worked hard to refine his character, but it took a Polish rabbi to turn the founding father’s method into a book. This volume became one of the texts used by the Lithuanian Musar movement – but its origins have been consistently overlooked.

Thomas Paine’s close associations with famous Freemasons in America, England, and France have not only frequently been taken as evidence that he was a Freemason himself, but have also been seen as explaining his sudden rise to literary and political prominence after arriving in the American colonies from England. His writing of an essay “On the Origin of Free-Masonry” several years before his death has similarly been interpreted as proof that he was a committed member of the fraternity.

However, a close reading of “On the Origin of Free-Masonry” shows that Paine was not a Freemason at the time of its composition and that the essay’s purpose is to attack organized religion as much as to explicate Freemasonry’s beginnings.

“On the Origin of Free-Masonry,” which posits a druid origin to the Masonic fraternity, is of a piece with the confrontational religious approach Paine embraced in his later works, where he denounced revealed religion and endorsed deism. Freemasonry and deism intersected often in revolutionary America and France, and due to Paine’s associations with members of the fraternity in both places and sympathy with certain of its beliefs and aims, he devoted an essay to Freemasonry’s origins, while simultaneously attacking revealed religion in his exploration of the subject.

Francesca Lui, Des ruines aux bibliothèques. Piranesi and the French World: Fame, Influence, Legacy, in The Rome of Piranesi. The Eighteenth-Century City in the Great Vedute, edited by Mario Bevilacqua and Mario Gori Sassoli. English edition by Fabio Barry, Rome, Artemide, 2006, pp. 79-90.

ISBN    8875750556

Large, concentrated settlements known as ‘agro-towns’ abound across Southern Italy and other parts of the Mediterranean. The prevalence and persistence of these settlements are very curious but not yet well understood. Initially, scholars interpreted their development as stemming from Southern Italy's economic and social ‘backwardness’ and inequality. This view has now been challenged by scholarship which emphasises that the pre-industrial Mezzogiorno supported not only a dynamic economy but also a diverse array of institutional structures. By recourse to a comparative study within Apulia, this paper suggests that both interpretations are equally correct. ‘Agro-towns’ in Southern Italy were linked to the inequitable distribution of land, perpetuated over the long term, but the institutional origins of this inequality were both diverse and dynamic.

Y a-t-il un modèle «agro-urbain» dans le Sud de l'Italie? Racines et développement d'une structure agro-urbaine: une étude comparative dans les Pouilles
En Italie du Sud, comme dans d'autres régions méditerranéennes, les grandes colonies de peuplement concentré appelées «agrovilles» sont nombreuses. La prévalence de ces localités surprend autant que leur persistance qui reste encore mystérieuse. Initialement, les chercheurs interprétaient le développement de cette forme d'habitat groupé comme issu du «retard» économique et social de cette région méridionale et d'inégalités spécifiques. Mais ce point de vue a été maintenant contesté par de récents travaux scientifiques qui soulignent que le Mezzogiorno préindustriel a connu non seulement une économie dynamique, mais aussi un large éventail de structures institutionnelles. La présente étude comparative, menée dans les Pouilles, suggère que ces deux interprétations sont de fait également correctes: les «agrovilles» du sud de l'Italie étaient liées à une distribution inégalitaire du foncier, situation perpétuée sur le long terme, mais les origines institutionnelles de cette inégalité étaient à la fois diversifiées et dynamiques.

Gibt es ein Agrarstadt-Modell für das südliche Italien? Eine vergleichende Fallstudie für Apulien fragt nach den unterschiedlichen Wurzeln und Entwicklungssträngen der agrarstädtischen Struktur
Süditalien und andere Regionen im Mittelmeerraum wimmeln von großen, konzentrierten Siedlungen, die als Agrarstädte bezeichnet werden. Die Verbreitung und Langlebigkeit dieser Siedlungen sind äußerst seltam, aber noch kaum wirklich verstanden. Während man ihre Entwicklung ursprünlich als Folge der wirtschaftlichen und sozialen „Rückständigkeit“ und Ungleichheit Süditaliens gedeutet hat, wird diese Auffassung inzwischen durch Forschungen angezweifelt, die darauf abheben, dass das vorindustrielle Mezzogiorno nicht nur eine dynamische Wirtschaft, sondern auch ein vielschichtiges Spektrum institutioneller Strukturen besaß. Unter Bezugnahme auf eine vergleichende Studie innerhalb Apuliens legt dieser Beitrag nahe, dass beide Auffassungen gleichermaßen richtig sind. Agrarstädte in Süditalien waren mit der ungerechten Landverteilung, die langfristig aufrechterhalten wurde, eng verknüpft, aber die institutionellen Ursprünge dieser Ungleichheit waren sowohl vielschichtig als auch dynamisch.

Proskynetaria - Ottoman-era paintings of the Holy Land on textiles, made in Jerusalem for Christian pilgrims - are studied as icons of iconic landscape. The paintings and the biblical land are considered as a chain of topographical media that mediated between the faithful and the absent divinity, and fortified faith. The stimulating nature of the biblical landscape is my point of departure in examining the paintings as a means of concretizing religious values, as substitutes for the biblical land in remote places, and as cultural instruments for constructing individual and collective identities.
Keywords: visual conceptualization of a holy landscape, Christian Hajj, pilgrimage souvenirs from the Holy Land, Eastern Christianity

This article focuses on the critical reception of Robert Burns from 1796 to 1828. It explores how the concept of genius influenced the perception of Burns as it was represented by critics and editors throughout the time period. Testimony of Burns’s ‘genius’ in the early nineteenth century was entirely in line with critical responses to the poet’s works beginning in 1786. This essay provides a survey of these responses, revealing a consistent pattern of critical reception of Burns and his body of work. The primary critical approach to Burns’s work involved the application of ‘genius’ theory; the continuum of critical responses demonstrates the fluid nature of this concept throughout the late eighteenth and mid nineteenth centuries. However, attention to the poet’s reception history also shows that while the concept underwent significant moderation as an aesthetic category, its association with moral failings was almost uniformly expressed by Burns’s critics. The ties between genius and biography, particularly in Burns’s case, became increasingly knotted as later commentators attempted to understand the poet’s life and works. This essay demonstrates that the process of myth-building and moralizing surrounding Burns continued unabated through the nineteenth century, particularly as critics assayed the poet’s nationalist iconicity while attempting to diminish the relevance of moral failings wrought by his ‘genius’. Burns’s fame still highlights this tension between his undeniable poetic gifts and his messy personal life, between his poetic aspirations and his complicated desires.

I più recenti studi di demografia storica stanno rivalutando il consueto paradigma della sedentarietà delle popolazioni dell’Europa di antico regime. Si deve piuttosto propendere per una endemica micromobilità regionale, con tempi e modi diversi nel tempo e nello spazio, annullando qualsiasi schematizzazione tesa a distinguere nettamente la sedentarietà e la mobilità.
In quest’ottica, nel contributo si pone l’attenzione su alcuni gruppi di zingari, attivi mercanti di bestiame nel Molise e nelle regioni limitrofe, tra Sette e Ottocento. Spostandosi al ritmo delle fiere e dei mercati gli zingari entravano in contatto con le comunità che di volta in volta li ospitavano per lunghi o brevi periodi, diventando parte integrante dell’economia fieristica locale. In questo senso, la loro mobilità non dipendeva da fattori antropologici o di emarginazione, ma era funzionale alle attività che loro stessi sceglievano di svolgere.
I libri delle obligationes penes acta delle corti baronali hanno costituito un punto di vista privilegiato e di partenza per ricostruire le vicende del loro vissuto e dei processi di integrazione economica e di ascesa sociale che contraddistinsero le vicende di alcuni di loro. Studiandone le attività, gli spostamenti, le vicende genealogiche si tracciano i profili della interazione e integrazione degli zingari nel sistema non solo culturale e sociale, ma anche e soprattutto economico del Molise tra Sette e Ottocento.

Most recent studies of historical demography are slowly rediscovering the paradigm of a sedentary lifestyle. The population was not immobile. There were different mobility’s patterns,  therefore, it could be defined a regional endemic mobility, that it cannot be fixed in a specific patterns: mobility or immobile.
The study analyzes complementarity between mobility and immobile about a gypsies’s group, that was an important traders group in the fairs of the South Italy in the XVIII and XIX centuries. Their mobility was limited in the space and interested short or long period, and becoming part of the economy local fair. In this sense, their mobility was not affected by anthropological factors or exclusion, but was instrumental in the activities that they themselves chose to play.
The obligationes penes acta have constituted a point of view and the beginning of rebuild the profiles of some gypsies, such as events of their experiences and their social integrations with others populations.
They moved in Molise and in the surrounding regions with the rhythm of fairs. Through the study of their activities, their movements, their genealogy's events we have reconstructed some models of cultural, social and economic integration.

ABSTRACT in English: "‘Partisan warfare’, ‘war in detachment’: the ‘petite guerre’ seen from England (18th century)"
The article aims to measure and to explain the gradual realisation, in Great Britain during the 18th century, of the importance of the "petite guerre" or the "partisan warfare" in military thinking (later that elsewhere in Europe). It shows then the creation and the increase in numbers of British light troops in the course of this century, the Government's policy with regard to them, and the awareness of the British for the "petite guerre" in the field, through a new case study regarding the War of Austrian Succession.

It was only in 1770 that a British author, Stevenson, wrote and published for the first time a treatise on the "petite guerre". Indeed, the British remained for some time on the sidelines of the stream of publications in Europe on this subject. Some historians are asserting that British officers in the 18th century didn't really care about refining their military knowledge. The researches of J. Houlding allow nuancing this statement. The fact remains that a prevailing tactical routine was real, with a tendency in military treatises to instruct only parade and garrison duties.

The article explores the context that brought the real – albeit late – interest expressed by English officers for the "petite guerre" in the years 1760-1770. It should be noted that there have been more translations of foreign books than real national works. 

More important than it seems is the question of the translation – or rather the non-existence of any translation! – of the wording for the "petite guerre" in English during the 18th century ; and, therefore, the difficulty for British historians of the 20th century to suggest an adequate wording in order to express a reality which was only translated with circumlocutions in the 18th century... The article points out the shortcomings of military vocabulary in the English language during the 18th century (recognized at the time), makes an inventory of the authors' choices to express the reality of the "petite guerre", as well as the solutions considered by today's historians. A consequence of this underestimated question is the confusion often remaining nowadays between the "petite guerre" in singular and the small wars in plural (that is, between the tactic of irregular warfare and the small wars in the sense used by Charles Edward Callwell).

Numerous studies have been written within the historiography in English language about the American War of Independence and about the tactic which it used; because civil wars make a bigger mark on the national consciousness than other types of conflicts, especially in the case of an independence war, leading to the birth of a new state! However, contrary to what one might think accordingly, the tactic of "guerrilla" in the American War of Independence only had later an influence of British strategic thinking. To be sure, a theoretician like Emmerich (a Hessian officer who fought with the British in this conflict, and who cites it as an example in his treatise of the "petite guerre" in 1789) has the merit, with his fellow countryman Ewald, of having understood the role that would have from now on the civilian populations and the ideological motivations in conflicts.

However, on one hand real light troops existed in the British army well before the American War of Independence, even if their inception came later than for the main European neighbours. On the other hand, those troops were unfortunately disbanded every time peace was made, and this didn't help the perpetuation of a certain know-how regarding an indirect style of operations. The first real regiment of light troops, the Light Dragoons, was raised in 1745 in order to fight the Jacobite rising. Other were raised on this model, always temporary, on the occasion of the War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and then of the Seven Years' War (1756-1763).

The article concludes with a new case study (to be continued) which presents the "petite guerre" understood and conducted by the British during the campaigns in Flanders of the War of Austrian Succession, and especially in 1747. This case study focuses on a period and on a theatre of operation still unexplored regarding this aspect of the art of war, as the British saw and experienced it. We can see that some of their generals didn't wait for the conflicts of the second half of the century and for the American theatre of operation to clearly understand the role of the "petite guerre". Beside some military accounts of British authors published after the conflict, this case study is based mainly on archives still waiting to be used on this subject : the military papers of the Duke of Cumberland, the English commander in chief of the Allies opposed to the French in 1747.

Since the 18th century, Punta de San García has been the background of several fortification projects, given its geographical position in Algeciras Bay, opposite Gibraltar. This paper is a brief description of three kinds of military fortification located there: a 16th century tower of vigilance, an 18th century coastal fort and nine 20th century bunkers. We focus on the first results of the 2006 archaeological and restoration works realized due to the first centennial of the “Conferencia de Algeciras” and the creation of the board of port works.

The representations of mental illnesses in Hungarian medical literature at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries

In this paper we examine the different types of medical literature written in or translated into Hungarian between 1770 and 1820, our special focus being the representations of mental illnesses. We examined both scientific texts, echoing the contemporary Western medical theories aimed at a narrower readership, the scholarly circles, and medical publications written in the vernacular for the wider public, their subject being common medical knowledge, focusing mostly on preventive measures. The 18th century was characterized by the diversity, eclecticism, and inconsistency of medical theories explaining the location and role of the soul within the human body. From among these approaches, the most significant were animism, vitalism, ​and mechanical theories. In our paper we will make an attempt to map the
reception of these theories in the aforementioned scholarly texts, examining the most emphatic notions and concepts, such as the relations between body and soul, the question of the vital principle, the attempts to define the role of the soul and ‘psychology’ itself, along
with the most common explanations of mental disorders (such as hysteria, hypochondria, mania or melancholy). As for popular medical publications, we will make an attempt to reconstruct how the most important notions and concepts of Western medical theories concerning mental illnesses were presented to the wider public, highlighting the different ‘strategies’ used to transform scientific knowledge into common knowledge. Thus, for pragmatic reasons, we have chosen to examine the specific aspects of the texts that can be perceived as ‘inscribed’ meanings. These meanings, based on the assumption that the writers kept the needs and expectations of the aimed readership in mind, were written into the text, structure and paratextual elements of the publications. This allows us to present several aspects of our chosen topic, including the field of the history of scientific knowledge, as well as the history of information and communication.

"S’il est un point sur lequel les chercheurs sont généralement d’accord, c’est que le philhellénisme, qui prit dans les années 1820 la forme d’un vaste courant de sympathie à la cause de libération grecque, fut l’une des premières manifestations de l’opinion publique à une échelle véritablement européenne. Ce n’est que tout récemment que des questions ont surgi quant à l’ampleur réelle du phénomène et quant à son impact effectif sur le cours des événements politico-militaires. L’existence, longtemps méconnue en Occident, d’un philhellénisme oriental à la fois russe et balkanique, vient compliquer l’image d’un mouvement beaucoup plus complexe et moins unilatéral qu’on ne l’a longtemps cru, où se mêlent aspects culturels et politiques, préoccupations humanitaires et visées économiques.

L’insurrection grecque de 1821 suscita naturellement l’enthousiasme des milieux libéraux européens, encore opprimés par la politique réactionnaire de la Sainte-Alliance. Ce lien entre le philhellénisme et le libéralisme fut accrédité presque unanimement par l’historiographie européenne, et cela jusqu’à nos jours. A l’encontre de cet avis largement répandu, notre contribution vise à montrer qu’il a existé également un philhellénisme conservateur qui s’est manifesté dans des cercles légitimistes occidentaux, russes ou balkaniques de l’époque. Des penseurs comme Alexandre Stourdza, bras droit du comte Capodistrias, ont tenté de concilier leurs sympathies philhellènes avec des positions favorables à la Sainte-Alliance.

Basée sur de multiples documents inédits tirés des archives russes et ukrainiennes, cette analyse interprète le philhellénisme dans le contexte de l’Europe de la Restauration. Elle s’attache également à en faire ressortir les composantes politiques, diplomatiques et religieuses.


Bibliographie sélective :

- Stella GHERVAS, "Alexandre Stourdza (1791-1854). Un intellectuel orthodoxe face à l’Occident", Genève, Ed. Suzanne Hurter, 1999.

- Stella GHERVAS, «Alexandru Sturza ou la quête de l’espace orthodoxe», "Bulletin de l’Association internationale d’études du sud-est européen", n° 31, 2001, pp. 53-60.

- Stella GHERVAS, «Alexandre Stourdza sur la scène européenne: autopsie d'un échec», "Revue Roumaine d'Histoire", t. XXXIX, n° 1-4, 2000, pp. 107-148.

This essay presents a detailed analysis of the works of three labouring-class poets who wrote in the "shadow" of Robert Burns: John Lapraik, David Sillar, and Janet Little. It assesses the influence of Burns upon their literary productions , finding that the "shadow" of Burns tended to diminish the works and reputations of his fellow labouring-class poets during this period.

ABSTRACT in English (the book is written in French):
This book presents a thorough analysis and a case study upon the "petite guerre" in the 18th century Europe - tactical and operational levels dealt with, as also relations between war and society (with a substantial historical reminder, in a large chapter exclusively devoted to the 17th century).

The “petite guerre“ was a type of warfare consisting in skirmishes and ambushes which, next to the sieges and battles, filled the theatre of operations during the conventional wars between princes. The locution "petite guerre" with this meaning was always used in the singular, and has to be used so today. The first treatises on the art of the “petite guerre” were published in France, from the mid-eighteenth century onwards. The locution “petite guerre” wasn’t translated into English in the eighteenth century, even in treatises published in Great Britain or America (on the contrary, it was translated into German).

Next to the case study of the Flanders during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748), the book makes an analysis of the thoughts on the “petite guerre” throughout the eighteenth century, in France and in the most important countries of Europe. A special chapter is devoted to the thoughts in Great Britain throughout the 18th century, and to the case study of the actions of British light troops in Flanders (example of 1747), because this topic has not been dealt with before - On the contrary, one book already dealt with the case study of Austria's and another, with the case study of Prussia's use of the "petite guerre" in the eighteenth century.

Besides the tactical level, the book shows how the use of the "petite guerre" was necessary to contribute to the victory in a military campaign at the operational level. In Flanders between 1745 and 1748, the Marshall of Saxe (commander of the French Army) and the Allies (Austrian, British and Dutch armies and their commanders) understood the advantage and importance of the "petite guerre" at this level. A case study shows in detail how the "petite guerre" strongly contributed to the main aims of the French army in August 1746.

However, the topic of the book goes beyond the scope of a tactical and operational study. By showing the impact of the “petite guerre” on civilians and on the activity of the provincial administration, by analyzing the French government policy towards light troops (the light troops were the specialists of the “petite guerre”), by approaching the opinions of the Parisian society (and of the elite as a whole) towards such military tactic and the troops specializing in it, what is at stake is also the possibility to grasp the ideas and sensitivity of society towards the “petite guerre”. This work is thus a contribution to a larger study ‒ that of an era's mentalities towards military issues.

The conclusion of the book offers the beginning of an analysis of the transformations in the use of the “petite guerre” during the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars.

В прежнее время по Вятской губернии на протяжении 330 вёрст проходил Сибирский тракт. В XIX в. вдоль него и некоторых иных важнейших дорог росли берёзы. Императрица Екатерина II на территории Вятского края не бывала и здесь не проезжала. Однако на Вятке, как и в некоторых других местностях России, известны легенды о Екатерине. Её образ прочно связан с теми дорогами, что были обсажены деревьями. И прежде всего – с Сибирским трактом. На самом же деле придорожное обустройство и насаждение деревьев происходили при другом императоре и в более позднее время – при Александре I. Народ приписывал тяготы дорожных работ в правление Александра I его высокопоставленному приближённому – А. А. Аракчееву, само имя которого стало одиозным. В общем, и Екатерина II, и Аракчеев стали ассоциироваться с обустроенными трактами. Только царственную путешественницу народ вспоминал с теплотой, гордясь тем, что и тут у нас она проезжала, чепец уронила, меткое речение высказала и т. п. А зловредного сановника Аракчеева добрым словом не поминали, приписывая ему одному строгости, жестокости и принуждение к непосильной работе.

Francesca Lui, Des ruines aux bibliothèques. Piranesi e il mondo francese: fortuna, suggestioni, eredità, in La Roma di Piranesi. La città del Settecento nelle Grandi Vedute, a cura di Mario Bevilacqua e Mario Gori Sassoli, Roma, Artemide, 2006, pp. 79-90-

ISBN    8875750408

Stella Ghervas, "La Sainte-Alliance: un pacte pacifique européen comme antydote à l'Empire", in Europe de papier. Projets européens au XIXe siècle, ed. Sylvie Aprile et al. (Lille: Presses Universitaires du Septentrion, 2015), pp. 47-64.

Abstract:
"One of the key treaties of the “Congress System”, born out of the Congress of Vienna, was the Holy Alliance, signed in Paris on 26 September 1815, and ratified by most European states. This short document, with its mystical accents, deserves more careful attention than it has been given in the past. One of its major innovations was that it promoted the ideal of a “family” that included all states of the continent, including Russia. This article analyses the intellectual sources perceptible in that covenant – among them, a tradition of perpetual peace going back to authors of the eighteenth century, such as Abbé de Saint-Pierre. It also examines the reasons for the Holy Alliance’s lack of success, as well as two of its main side effects: the eviction of the Pope from his position as the tutelary figure of European politics, and the ideological ambiguity that would later contribute to the emergence of the Eastern Question."

This chapter explores the problem of regional differentiation in linen-manufacturing regions during the era of proto-industrialization and the transition to modern capitalist industry, focussing on the Irish, Scottish and Flemish cases. It critically reviews a number of existing explanations for regional differentiation and suggest an alternative. In the Germanic lands, linen's ‘fateful association with the household’ - and with women's work - led to its poor reputation. I suggest that it was differences in how men's and women's labour was mobilized in the production of linen (from the cultivation of flax to the manufacture of woven cloth) which contributed to regional differentiation in the development of linen producing regions, and thereby led to differences in the transition to capitalism.

Book Jacket blurb, for what it's worth: "A sharply focused analysis of how and why romantic writers drew on gothic conventions whilst, at the same time, denying their influence in order to claim critical respectability. He shows how the reception of gothic writing, including its institutional and commercial recognition as a form of literature, played a fundamental role in the development of romanticism as an ideology. In doing so he examines the early history of the romantic movement and its assumptions about literary value, and the politics of reading, writing, and reception at the end of the eighteenth century. As a whole the book makes an original contribution to our understanding of genre, tracing the impact of reception, marketing, and audience on its formation."

"The author of the essay has started investigating the writings of Alexander von Humboldt as a member of a German-American research cooperation in 2001. The project was affiliated to the Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures in the University of Kansas in Lawrence, KS, it was directed by Professor Frank Baron and was aimed at digitizing and electronically publishing the English translations of the works of Alexander von Humboldt. The project entitled The Humboldt Digital Library: A Global Network of Knowledge has come to an end by now, its results are available on the internet, see http://www.avhumboldt.net/index.php?page=136. As an anthropologist and historian of cultural anthropology, the author explored the Hungarian relations of the work of Alexander von Humboldt. She revealed how much he knew about Hungary (its geography, its language and, to a certain extent, its history), and that he not only had personal connections, acquaintances in contemporary Hungarian aristocratic and scientific circles, but he also made trips to Hungary (in 1797 and 1811). It is primarily certain members of the Podmaniczky family – József Podmaniczky (1756–1823) for sure, and perhaps also Károly Podmaniczky (1772–1833) – as well as other Protestant scientists like Pál Almási Balogh (1794–1867) who could function as his closest acquaintances in Hungary. Having a considerable reception in Hungarian scientific culture, the works of Alexander von Humboldt seem to have had an impact upon the emergence of, among others, geography and world ethnology in that country. They were praised by the geographer János Hunfalvy (1820–1888), a pioneer of ethnology/universal ethnography, too. The impact of Humboldt testifies the presence of the French géographie humaine but also a Romantic Gesamtforschung in 19th century Hungary -- research directions that the Hungarian scholars of the age could and did turn against Habsburg science."

The text below aims to analyse the historical circumstances surrounding the Royal Mint of
Jubia in the period from 1827 to 1835, using municipal documentary sources together with documentation produced by the Monarchy’s central institutions. This perspective enables us to unravel
the relationships between individuals, mercantile groups, the Mint’s workforce and the central
institutions in their conflicts and interdependence and so gain an insight into the reasons for the
closure, which range from structural economic issues to personal and political interests.

This article examines the wide-ranging Scottish poetic response to eighteenth-century slavery, particularly the use of sentiment as a literary strategy designed to provoke empathetic reactions from readers. The article covers the entirety of the eighteenth-century Scottish response, ending with Robert Burns's ambiguous poetic treatments of slavery. Because Scots were intimately involved at home and abroad in the discourse and practice of the slave trade, they were well-positioned to respond to its effects. Scottish Enlightenment philosophy, derived from the works of Smith, Francis Hutcheson, and Dugald Stewart, had laid the groundwork for literary works that stressed the importance of feelings in the individual’s response to the world. Observable phenomena became not just the source of sensory impressions but served to structure and relate experiences by means of empathetic sentimental responses. These responses could guide future actions by acting to promote the relief of suffering and dissipate the stimulus to the observer’s own pain. Based on the central premise of this model—‘ev’ry heart can feel’—much Scottish poetry from the eighteenth century sought to redress the sufferings of slaves by appealing to core emotions in its audience, producing as a result a body of political writing that powerfully imagined the painful experience of slavery.

The article gives the catalogue of 23 medals and medallions in the name or with the portrait of General Jean-André van der Mersch (an ancestor of the author), who lead the Belgian army in 1789-1790 against the Austrians. The rich collection of the Coin Cabinet of the Royal Library of Belgium (with the donation Surmont de Volsberghe) is here complemented by the contents of the Royal Army Museum. The other figures of the Révolution brabançonne or Révolution Belgique are also evoked (van der Noot and Vonck).

How did the French Revolution change ordinary lives? "Bureaucrats and Bourgeois Society" asks this question in relation to office clerks working in Parisian administrations. Under new masters, these clerks faced radical changes to work practices as reforming politicians looked to implement new 'administrative science'. Many also faced the loss of family inheritances, as positions no longer passed down from father to son. Clerks were now expected to make their career as individuals. In practice, this meant increased job insecurity.  Administrators lived under the threat of regular cuts in pay and of personnel. In this situation, some believed that the way to get ahead was by playing office politics. In the early nineteenth century, however, clerks mitigated their situation by modifying occupational practices. Inside the offices, they settled new modes of judging individual merit. Outside, they accumulated other forms of individual credit, in the process helping to define nineteenth-century bourgeois social capital, ideals of emulation, honor, and masculinity.  Job insecurity, however, continued to set 'bureaucrats' apart from the bourgeoisie and their social identity came under question during the July Monarchy and 1848 Revolution.

Christian Friedrich Hoffmann, a pioneer of archaeology, visited the city of Bonn in the summer of 1819.
Since 1791, when he (re)discovered the ruins of the Roman fort of Niederbieber on the Upper-German Limes, he excavated large areas of this fort.
The president of the Prussian Rhine Province was curious about hearing Hoffmanns opinion on excavations in the area of the Roman legionary camp in Bonn. These were carried out by the University of Bonn and just finished a couple of days before his arrival in Bonn.

Du croquis à la peinture à l’huile, restées à l’état original ou diffusées par l’intermédiaire de la gravure, seules ou en conjonction avec le récit viatique, les images du voyage en Orient véhiculent une image riche en contrastes et souvent ambivalente. Au siècle des Lumières, de l’Acropole et des Pyramides d’Égypte aux vestiges de l’Empire byzantin et aux prestiges de la Cour ottomane, il s’agit d’autant d’images apparemment disparates, mais qui proposent un regard nouveau sur l’Orient méditerranéen. Source d’inspiration et de réflexion pour les artistes et les architectes, les images viatiques, qui alimentèrent les débats artistiques de l’époque, sont un ensemble précieux et irremplaçable pour le géographe, l’historien, l’ethnologue et le littéraire. Dans une approche thématique de l’Orient méditerranéen, cet ouvrage traite successivement du paysage, de l’histoire naturelle, des vestiges antiques, de l’architecture moderne et des populations. Il s’attarde, en outre, sur les analogies, les divergences et la complémentarité des images viatiques françaises avec celles d’autres voyageurs notamment britanniques. Si l’iconographie viatique du XVIIIe siècle a repris et développé des stéréotypes existants, elle fut le témoignage d’un orientalisme précoce, original, coloré d’anciennes rêveries sur l’Orient des merveilles renouvelées par la civilisation ottomane et procurant aux restes de la Belle Antiquité le vernis de la nostalgie.

ABSTRACT in English (résumé en français plus bas): "Grandmaison, the heroic prisoner of a tragic convoy attack (15th March 1748)"
On March 15, 1748, a supply convoy heading to the fortress of Berg op Zoom, conquered the previous year by the French, was ambushed by the Allies south of the city. The fighting was intense between the troops of the Hungarian general Hadik, in the Austrian service, and the French escort of the convoy. The light cavalrymen of Lieutenant-colonel de Grandmaison, in the vanguard, fought until they were almost all killed or captured by numerically superior cuirassiers. Grandmaison himself was taken prisoner of war... This fierce resistance was striking. In this article, it is a gateway that allows to rise beyond the bravery of the troops in an attack of convoy, in order to grasp the event globally and to show the stakes for the army: the strategic importance of supplying strongholds such as Berg op Zoom; the arrangements put in place for the supply, and therefore for the protection of convoys; and also the strategic importance of the convoy of 15th March in particular. On the tactical level, the article highlights the Allies' know-how in the planning and execution of a large-scale surprise attack. Field Marshal de Saxe, commander-in-chief of the King's army in Flanders, had to take unprecedented measures to ensure that such an attack would not happen again during the whole campaign – hence until the end of the war.

RESUME en français :
Dans la journée du 15 mars 1748, un convoi d’approvisionnement de la place de Berg op Zoom, conquise l’année précédente par les Français, tomba dans une embuscade des Alliés au sud de cette place. Les combats furent vifs entre les troupes du général hongrois Hadik, au service autrichien, et l’escorte française du convoi. Les cavaliers légers du lieutenant-colonel de Grandmaison, à l’avant-garde, combattirent jusqu’à se faire presque tous tuer ou prendre par des cuirassiers bien supérieurs en nombre. Grandmaison lui-même fut constitué prisonnier de guerre… Cette résistance acharnée frappa les esprits. Dans cet article, elle est une porte d’entrée qui permet ensuite de prendre de la hauteur sur l’événement pour le saisir globalement et montrer les enjeux pour l’armée, au-delà de la bravoure des troupes lors d’une attaque de convoi : l’importance stratégique de l’approvisionnement des places de guerre telles que Berg op Zoom ; le dispositif mis en place pour l’approvisionnement d’une place, donc pour la protection des convois ; l’importance stratégique, aussi, de ce convoi du 15 mars en particulier. Au plan tactique, l’article met en lumière le savoir-faire des Alliés dans la planification et l’exécution d’une attaque par surprise de grande envergure. Le maréchal de Saxe, général en chef de l'armée du roi en Flandre, dut prendre des mesures sans précédent pour qu’une telle attaque ne se renouvelle plus de toute la campagne - donc jusqu'à la fin de la guerre.

ABSTRACT in English (résumé en français ci-après):
This article begins the analysis of Clausewitz's thinking about “petite guerre” and “guerrilla warfare” based on his lecture on the “petite guerre” (“Vorlesung über den kleinen Krieg”) in 1810-1811 and then in 1811-1812 at the War College in Berlin. The reflection on current armed conflicts in the 21th century does benefit from of a historical perspective on such tactics which are – mutatis mutandis – part of contemporary warfare. Now, this lecture of Clausewitz has not been the subject of a thorough study yet. On the French side, this can be partly explained by the absence of a French translation of the lecture, which has been published for the first and only time in German in 1966; this can be explained too by the fact that the interest for the history of the “petite guerre” is still relatively new. In this article, I show what the young commissioned officers who attended the lecture of Clausewitz could learn from the spirit of the “petite guerre”, in the way it was seen and understood in those days. The study of this lecture from this point of view did require a thorough knowledge of the military culture of those officers as well as the consideration of the armed warfare's transformations since the French Revolution era and the Napoleonic Wars.

RESUME en français :
Cet article entame une analyse de la pensée de Clausewitz en matière de « petite guerre » et de guérilla, et ce, à travers son Cours sur la petite guerre (« Vorlesung über den kleinen Krieg ») dispensé à l’Académie militaire de Berlin en 1810-1811 et en 1811-1812. La réflexion sur l’actualité du XXIe siècle ne peut que profiter d’un regard historique sur une tactique qui, mutatis mutandis, est en partie celle des conflits d’aujourd’hui. Or, ce Cours n’a pas fait l’objet encore d’un commentaire approfondi. Du côté français, on peut en partie l’expliquer par le fait que, publié pour la première et la seule fois en allemand en 1966, il n’a pas encore été traduit ; par le fait, aussi, que l’intérêt pour l’histoire de la petite guerre est assez récent. Je me suis attachée à montrer ce que les jeunes officiers de 1810-1812 qui ont assisté à l’enseignement de Clausewitz ont pu retenir de l’essence de la petite guerre perçue et comprise par leur temps ; ce qui a nécessité, à la fois, un retour sur la culture théorique des officiers du temps, et la prise en compte des mutations intervenues dans la manière de faire la guerre depuis l’ère révolutionnaire et les guerres de l’Empire.