Archaic Greek history

This paper addresses the construction of a " national " identity of the Athenian inhabitants during the tyrannical governance of Peisistratos and his sons (561/0-511/0 BCE 1) mainly through a series of religious practices, such as the transfer of cults from the rural areas to the city (asty) of Athens, the reorganization of the Panathenaia, the establishment of the City Dionysia, etc. The present paper investigates how this developed " national " consciousness in the late 6th century, in the sense of the citizens' nationalization within the borders of the Athenian city-state, could enable the political unification of Attica and the emergence of Democracy, taking into account the constitutional reforms of Kleisthenes the Alcmeonid, after the expulsion of the Peisistratidai. This paper focuses on the interpretation of the concept of political equality and the formation of a political identity of the Athenians in the late 6th century onwards, two notions which are treated here as very closely integrated. It was that political consciousness, following the constitutional changes of Kleisthenes, which led the Athenians to their first great military victories in the early 5th century over the Persians. These victories, which indisputably confirmed the strength of the constitution, will be brought, in short, into discussion in order to clarify the transition of Athens from the narrow borders of an archaic city-state to the rise of its naval empire in the " golden " 5th century via the newly-established Democracy.

De Tirteu, poeta espartano arcaico do século VII a.C., restaram-nos apenas poemas elegíacos fragmentários. Seus fragmentos dividem-se entre aqueles que narravam a história e os preceitos espartanos, instituídos por reis descendentes dos deuses, e aqueles que exortavam a uma moralidade guerreira que privilegiava a morte heroica em combate e condenava a fuga. Este trabalho consiste na tradução integral e no comentário desses fragmentos remanescentes, analisando a constituição do gênero elegíaco e seus contextos de performance no período arcaico grego (séculos VII-V a.C), bem como a relação entre a poesia de Tirteu e a tradição épica grega.

This book presents a new study of Greek large-scale bronze statuary of the late Archaic and Classical periods. It examines the discovery, origin, style, date, artistic attribution, identification, and interpretation of the surviving bronzes, and focuses in particular on their technical features and casting techniques. It contains over 170 plates of photographs and drawings to illustrate its discussion.

It also places the development of the casting techniques in connection with the stylistic evolution in Greek free-standing sculpture. During the Classical period, artists preferred bronze to marble when creating their contrapposto figures. Indisputably, bronze gave particular freedom to artists in creating three-dimensional figures. In addition, the evolution in style encouraged the development of the uses of bronze to serve the new needs and tendencies in sculpture during the late Archaic and especially the Classical period. Through the examination of how technical matters affect style, this book presents fresh interpretations of these important monuments of Greek art and offers a new approach in the field of Greek free-standing bronze sculpture.

Any building can be perceived as the summation of specific actions surrounding the gathering and construction of a precise volume and variety of materials. By working backwards and quantifying its individual aspects, a structure can be estimated in terms of labour costs spent in construction. This methodology, traditionally called architectural energetics, is becoming more common in historical and archaeological analyses and can provide new avenues through which to interpret past societies via structures. Three-dimensional (3D) technologies are continually being applied to historical research in new and exciting ways. One such application comes in 3D reconstructions of past buildings. In this project, a residential structure at Kasmenai, Archaic period southeast Sicily, was reconstructed based on archaeological evidence and historical comparanda. From the volume calculations provided by Blender, volumetric analyses can be completed to aid in estimating labour costs for constructing the building. This project compares the traditional, mathematical format of architectural energetics to that aided by 3D design. The advantages of the latter demonstrate clearly the benefit of incorporating digital technologies into historical research.

Non-destructive analysis by means of portable X-ray flourescence (pXRF) and Raman spectroscopy of color traces on sculptures and architectural parts from the Delphi Museum, Phokis, Greece, are presented. These sculptures and architectural parts are dated to the Archaic period (7th-6th c. B.C.). The main question to be answered is the mineral/pigment used for each part and therefore to reconstruct the color palette of the artists. For this research, sixteen archaeological exhibits of the Delphi museum were analyzed with two different spectroscopies, and the white, red, black, yellow and blue pigments were identified.

The case of Wahibreemakhet, son of Alexikles and Zenodote, is the most prominent example for the high status that Greeks – as mercenaries or advisors – could attain in Egypt under the Saite pharaohs. The present article argues that his final resting place should be identified in a tomb at Saqqara that was probably discovered by agents of Giovanni Anastasi in the 1820s and that contained not only Wahibreemakhet’s elaborate stone sarcophagus (now in Leiden), canopic jars (in Stockholm) and shabtis (in various collections), but also a set of limestone tomb reliefs recording spells from the Book of the Dead that are today in the collection of the British Museum and that were once erroneously attributed to ‘Campbell’s tomb’ at Giza. Wahibreemakhet’s rich burial, dating to the decades around 600 BC, and his ranking title ‘Royal Sealer’ illustrate both his social status and his assimilation to Egyptian culture.

doi:10.1515/zaes-2018-0016

The much shorter Archaiologikon Deltion for the single year of 2005 invariably offers far fewer reports on the work of the Archaeological Service than the four-year volume with which we were presented last year. This, in itself, is no bad thing, although the geographical and chronological balance generated by such a large dataset is notable by its absence. This unevenness is, as ever, partially offset by the publication of fieldwork, although certain areas maintain a far more visible archaeological presence than others. This is particularly true for the northeastern Peloponnese, which has, in recent years, been the recipient of an almost unparalleled focus of both research and rescue excavation; a fact reflected in the significant contribution made to this year's report by the edited proceedings of the conference The Corinthia and the Northeast Peloponnese: Topography and History from Prehistoric Times until the End of Antiquity (Kissas and Niemeier 2013). A total of 56 individual papers provide details on sites that range in date from the Neolithic to the Byzantine period. A great strength of this collection lies in the contribution of so many current and former staff of the Archaeological Service, and, of the numerous papers that engage directly or indirectly with the archaeology of the Archaic to Roman period, several are discussed in greater depth in the course of this report. A complementary Hesperia supplement detailing the current state of prehistoric and historic research on the Corinthian Isthmus is due to appear before the end of the year (Gebhard and Gregory forthcoming), as is a study of material from Henry Robinson's 1961–1962 excavation in the North Cemetery (Slane forthcoming). The study of religious practice during the Classical period benefits from the publication of the first volume of material from excavations conducted by the Canadian Institute in Greece between 1994 and 2001 in the Sanctuary of Athena at Stymphalos (Schaus 2014a), while the consolidation of synthetic regional studies and individual site reports within Villae Rusticae: Family and Market-oriented Farms in Greece under Roman Rule (Rizakis and Touratsoglou 2013) will no doubt ensure that it becomes a standard text for the study of the rural economy of Roman Greece (see Stewart, this volume).

Counselors, councilors and ambassadors are often complementary figures, but from Homeric Greece to classical Sparta we know of certain characters like the hero Odysseus or the Spartiate Lichas who perform all of these tasks (i.e. deliberating, deciding and delivering the decision) personally. Starting off with the analysis of the relevant literary sources, this paper proposes to address the following questions: what does the triple function of these figures imply for their respective duties? Can these cases be considered to be representative for Homeric Greece and Classical Sparta?

Die Geschichte des Ionischen Aufstandes und der Perserkriege (5. Jh. v. Chr.) ist von dem antiken Geschichtsschreiber Herodot überliefert worden. Eine unreflektierte Übernahme seiner Erzählung ist jedoch nicht möglich. Allerdings läßt sich nicht ignorieren, daß zahlreiche seiner Behauptungen überprüft werden können, so etwa die Angaben zu Schlachtfeldern an der realen Topographie. Den Wahrheitsgehalt der von Herodot überlieferten Erzählung aufzuspüren, haben sich die Autoren dieses Bandes zur Aufgabe gestellt.

The paper argues that Cleisthenes’ military reforms were not improvised. The
general view of war in Archaic Athens as a series of skirmishes between small
contingents recruited on an almost private basis must be qualified, as there are
indications to suggest a greater and more regulated involvement of the polis of Athens
in the organisation of collective war. This was not entirely effective since it depended
on “private” channels, the aristoi from different districts, who fought each other (stasis).
Despite this, they were “institutionalised” as part of the common political and
institutional framework. The sources seems to indicate that the existence of “Hoplites” in Peisistratid Athens was more widespread than is usually believed.

Esposizione di approfondimento per studenti liceali e di laurea triennale. Atene è l"altro polo nella gamma di possibili forme della polis greca. Il cammino di Atene è per certi versi opposto a quello di Sparta: se a Sparta l"ordine politico e sociale si va cristallizzando, Atene vive una continua evoluzione sociale e sperimenta soluzioni politiche sempre nuove; se Sparta è una polis creata da un gruppo ristretto di invasori che si impone sulla popolazione preesistente, gli Ateniesi si vantavano di essere autoctoni, di essere cioè la popolazione originaria del luogo; se la storia spartana è segnata dal contrasto fra il nucleo degli Spartiati residenti a Sparta e la popolazione asservita della campagna, al contrario quella di Atene è caratterizzata dall"eguaglianza di diritti fra abitanti della città e abitanti dei villaggi, e dalla fusione di centro urbano e campagna in una unica realtà politica; se Sparta risolve il conflitto politico solo imponendo l"uguaglianza totale dei cittadini, Atene invece saprà coniugare eguaglianza di diritti politici e diseguaglianze economiche. Infine, se Sparta finisce per incarnare l"ideale dell"oligarchia (il dominio dei pochi sui molti: da olìgos "poco" e arché, "comando"), ad Atene sarà si imporrà infine quelle che gli stessi Ateniesi definiranno "isonomia", cioè la "parità di diritti" di tutti di fronte alla legge (da isos, "eguale" e nomos "legge") e "democrazia", cioè il regime fondato sul potere del popolo (da demos, "popolo" e kratos, "potere).

New Approaches to Greek and Roman Warfare brings together essays from specialists in ancient history who employ contemporary tools and approaches to reveal new evidence and increase knowledge of ancient militaries and warfare. In-depth yet highly readable, this volume covers the most recent trends for understanding warfare, militaries, soldiers, non-combatants, and their roles in ancient cultures. Chronologically-organized chapters explore new methodologies, evidence, and topics while offering fresh and original perspectives on recent documentary and archaeological discoveries.
Covering the time period from Archaic Greece to the Late Roman Empire, the text asks questions of both new and re-examined old evidence and discusses the everyday military life of soldiers and veterans. Chapters address unique topics such as neurophysiological explanations for why some soldiers panic and others do not in the same battle, Greek society’s handling of combat trauma in returning veterans, the moral aspects and human elements of ancient sieges, medical care in the late Roman Empire, and the personal experience of military servicemembers and their families. Each chapter is self-contained to allow readers to explore topics in any order they prefer.
Providing new material and topical focus, New Approaches to Greek and Roman Warfare is an ideal text for Greek History or Roman History courses, particularly those focusing on ancient warfare, as well as scholars and general readers with interest in the ancient militaries.

This course presents a broad survey of historical forces at work over the past 6,000 years, examining the manners in which human societies have organized themselves along categories of race, ethnicity, class, and gender to meet the challenges of the increasing human population and its demands on natural resources: thus, it examines continuity and change in societies over time, in different places, and among various peoples.

This new companion (edited by Patrick Finglass and Adrian Kelly) aims to incorporate the newest finds of Sappho's poetry into an overall study of her importance in the ancient world and her reception into the modern. The cast list and proposed structure can be found in the attached document.

"L’itinerario dell’eroe Philoktetes, nel ‘Catalogo delle navi’ signore arciere e capo di arcieri in partenza per l’impresa troiana, ha origine nella penisola di Magnesia. La fisionomia mitica del  personaggio è completa. Essa riflette, nel presentarsi distintamente dall’ethnos dei Magnetes, una forma di dialettica che rivela la progressiva espansione magnesia verso il sud, con appropriazione delle memorie locali: il tutto in concomitanza con l’ingresso dirompente dei Thessaloi nelle piane centrali del paese. La testimonianza omerica, pur depositaria di realtà mitiche molto antiche, ne indizia anche il superamento: per Philoktetes, essa presenta sia il polo magnesio che, più occultamente, lo slittamento verso le terre del sud, indiziati anche per altri versi. L’incontro di Philoktetes con Herakles nello scenario iniziatico dell’Oeta, sovrapponendosi all’episodio con Poias, segna  indelebilmente l’eroe tessalico nella sua fisionomia mitica. Grazie al dono dell’arco ‘magico’, egli diverrà a tutti gli effetti l’erede di Herakles nell’impresa troiana, acquistandone caratteri e peculiarità; attraverso questo legame, non originario, Philoktetes emergerà anche in terra italiota.      ----------------
L'itinéraire du héros Philoctète, que le "Catalogue des vaisseaux" définit archer expert et chef de contingents d'archers au départ pour la guerre de Troie, a ses origines dans une petite région de la Thessalie orientale, la Magnésie, où s'échelonnent ‘ses’ lieux. Le personnage révèle une physionomie mythique complète, qui lui est propre; la manière dont on le voit se distinguer de l'ethnos des Magnetes reflète une forme de dialectique qui révèle la réalité de l'expansion progressive des Magnésiens surtout vers les pays côtiers du sud, avec l'appropriation des souvenirs mythiques locaux; tout cela en concomitance avec l'entrée violente des Thessaliens dans les plaines centrales du pays. Si le témoignage d'Homère est le dépositaire de traditions mythiques très anciennes, il est également, l'indice de leur dépassement, puisqu'il reflète en même temps certaines évolutions successives de la tradition: pour Philoctète, il contient à la fois le pôle de référence magnésien et, d'une façon plus cachée, le déplacement vers les terres du sud, éléments qui sont, d'ailleurs, confirmés par d'autres moyens. La rencontre de Philoctète et d'Héraklès dans le cadre initiatique de l’Oeta, par sa superposition à l'épisode avec Poias, marque d'une manière puissante et indélébile le héros thessalien dans sa physionomie mythique. Grâce au don de l'arc ‘magique’, il devient à tout point de vue dans l'expédition troyenne l'héritier d'Héraklès, dont il acquiert les caractères et les particularités, grâce auxquels il pourra se distinguer, enfin, aussi en territoire italiote.

Archaic owl tetradrachms form an important subset of our research into Early Attic coinage. This paper analyses their physical characteristics and silver content based on measurements of 424 owl tetradrachms and 81 owl obols for comparison with fractional coinage. The paper proposes that the tetradrachms were deliberately minted at their ideal standard weight and with a consistently high purity of silver to make them acceptable as an export coinage. This stood in contrast to the preceding 'Wappenmünzen' and contemporary fractional coinage both of which were minted primarily for use in the domestic market place. Test-cutting in antiquity appears to have been carried out as a matter of routine checking primarily by overseas end-users, rather than on suspicion of individual coins.

ENGLISH: Is it possible to talk about politeness in ancient Greece? Modern sociology defines politeness as a system of rules,
which set behavioural patterns in accordance with different social situations. Ancient Greek thought never conceived
a similar idea. Instead, between the 8th and the 5th century BC, the Greeks seem to have appraised social
conduct through the lens of a principle of correspondence between one’s aspect and demeanour and the virtue of
one’s soul. This study aims at shedding light upon the cultural features of this Greek idea, and to outline the ways
in which it oriented social judgement. The analysis is conducted through categories inspired by the research of the
sociologist Erving Goffman, entirely readapted in order to apply them to ancient sources. The prime focus of the
work is on Homer. This is followed by a study of the role of the principles of ancient Greek politeness, as gleaned
from the epics, with regard to conversation, gestural expressiveness and meeting occasions in the Archaic and
Classical periods.

FRANÇAIS : Est-il possible de parler d’un savoir-vivre grec antique ? La sociologie contemporaine définit le code de politesse
comme un ensemble de règles proposant des modèles de conduite adaptés aux différentes occasions de rencontre.
La pensée grecque antique, quant à elle, ne formula jamais une idée pareille : entre le VIIIe et le Ve siècle av.
J.-C., les Grecs semblent plutôt avoir évalué la conduite sociale en fonction d’un principe de correspondance entre
d’une part l’aspect et les manières de chaque individu et d’autre part la disposition de son esprit. Ce travail vise à la
fois à mettre en lumière les spécificités culturelles de cette idée antique et à étudier les manières dont celle-ci
orientait le jugement social. L’analyse est menée par le biais de catégories inspirées des recherches du sociologue
américain Erving Goffman, entièrement réélaborées afin de les adapter aux sources. L’attention est d’abord focalisée
sur l’épopée homérique, dont l’examen permet de cerner des principes majeurs de la politesse en Grèce ancienne.
Ensuite l’étude se concentre sur le rôle social qu’ont eu ces principes aux époques archaïque et classique,
notamment en ce qui concerne la conversation, la gestuelle et les occasions de sociabilité.

Neoanalysis and narratology in their different ways allow the poet to comment upon well-kown, distinct oral or written texts which are not subject to continuous change. This liberates the poets from both the almost compulsory asscocitation with the "heroic age" and from dependence upon a supposed national tradition. This makes it possible for them to adopt a non-aristocratic perspective as well, and even to criticize existing conditions by means of commenting on existing texts.
Since this chapter analyzes texts, it can only discover literary worlds. Theses, however can be compared with the worlds "reconstructed" by archaeology and its models, and with information derived from Near Eastern Sources. It is only this comparison which enables us to draw conclusions about the historicity of the societies portrayed in the epics.

L’itinerario dell’eroe Philoktetes, nel ‘Catalogo delle navi’ signore arciere e capo di contingenti di arcieri in partenza per l’impresa troiana, ha origine nella penisoletta di Magnesia. Il personaggio mostra una fisionomia mitica completa, riflettendo, nel presentarsi distintamente dall’ethnos dei Magnetes, una forma di dialettica che rivela la progressiva espansione magnesia verso il sud, con appropriazione delle memorie locali: il tutto in concomitanza con l’ingresso dirompente dei Thessaloi nelle piane centrali del paese. La testimonianza omerica, depositaria di realtà mitiche molto antiche, ne indizia anche il superamento: essa rappresenta sia il polo magnesio che, più occultamente, lo slittamento verso le terre del sud. L’incontro di Philoktetes con Herakles nello scenario iniziatico dell’Oeta, sovrapponendosi all’episodio con Poias, segna fortemente ed indelebilmente l’eroe tessalico nella sua fisionomia mitica. Con il dono dell’arco ‘magico’, egli diverrà l’erede di Herakles nell’impresa troiana; grazie a questo legame, non originario, Philoktetes si affermerà anche in terra italiota.      -------
L'itinéraire du héros Philoctète, que le "Catalogue des vaisseaux" définit archer expert et chef de contingents d'archers au départ pour Troie, a ses origines dans une petite région de la Thessalie orientale, la Magnésie, où s'échelonnent ‘ses’ lieux. Le personnage révèle une physionomie mythique complète; la manière dont on le voit se distinguer de l'ethnos des Magnetes reflète une forme de dialectique qui révèle la réalité de l'expansion progressive des Magnésiens vers les pays côtiers du sud, avec l'appropriation des souvenirs mythiques locaux; tout cela en concomitance avec l'entrée des Thessaliens dans les plaines centrales du pays. Si le témoignage d'Homère est le dépositaire de traditions mythiques très anciennes, il est également, l'indice de leur dépassement, puisqu'il reflète en même temps certaines évolutions successives de la tradition: pour Philoctète, il contient à la fois le pôle de référence magnésien et le déplacement vers les terres du sud. La rencontre de Philoctète et d'Héraklès dans le cadre initiatique de l’Oeta, par sa superposition à l'épisode avec Poias, marque d'une manière indélébile le héros thessalien dans sa physionomie mythique. Grâce au don de l'arc ‘magique’, il devient à tout point de vue dans l'expédition troyenne l'héritier d'Héraklès, dont il acquiert les caractères et les particularités, grâce auxquels il pourra se distinguer, enfin, aussi en territoire italiote.

This volume is the edited collection of the papers from a conference we hosted in Oxford in 2017, drawing together specialists from the United Kingdom, continental Europe and the United States, to examine afresh the relationship between early Greece and the civilisations of the ancient Near East. This is one of the most controversial and rapidly developing research topics in Classics, and the aim of the conference was to bring together Classicists and non-Classicists in a truly interdisciplinary environment, in which specialists from several different fields could observe and draw upon one another’s discoveries and knowledge. It was the first time that all major scholars who have so far contributed to the debate were assembled at a conference, a fact that was reflected by large crowd of over seventy participants at the Ioannou Centre in Oxford, over two full days. Our hope was that the resulting interchange would reflect on the disparate methodologies which have developed in these distinct fields, and move towards a new consensus. In order to achieve this, we limited the papers to the presentation of narratives to do with the gods; this led to a clear cross-fertilisation between papers (both in the general discussion and in the presentations), and a movement away from a narrow concern with the question of direct influence towards a more truly comparative perspective, in which the individual dynamics of the Greek and Near Eastern traditions help to illuminate what is distinctive about each of them. This represents a paradigm shift in a field once concerned solely with collecting literary parallels and letting them ‘speak for themselves’ (in Martin West’s famous words), and this is one of the major reasons why we think the resulting volume will cohere both thematically and as articulating a crucial moment in the history of scholarship on this question.

The volume serves two interconnected purposes. The first is that the book is an illustrative, handbook-like overview of the history and current state of the discussion, an aspect to be supported by an extensive Introduction to the volume, to be written by the editors. The second is that it offers new material and fresh approaches formulated by the leading scholars in the field. The volume will thus capture the state of the current discussion and shape the future debate. In keeping with the theme and discoveries of the conference, the chapters are not simply lists of parallels, but attempts to consider the processes of interaction and their significance for the texts being discussed.

The cast list of contributors is, as one should expect in a volume with this kind of ambition, international: Angus Bowie (Oxford), Yoram Cohen (Tel Aviv), Bruno Currie (Oxford), Andrew George (SOAS), Amir Gilan (Tel-Aviv), Johannes Haubold (Durham), Adrian Kelly (Oxford), Andre Lardinois (Nijmegen), Carolina Lopez-Ruiz (Ohio State), Christopher Metcalf (Oxford), Bernardo Petrella (Oxford), Fran Reynolds (Oxford), Ruth Scodel (Michigan), Robert Rollinger (Innsbruck), Ian Rutherford (Reading), Sylvie Vanséveren (Brussels), and Mark Weeden (SOAS).

The exploration of Didyma began during the Renaissance, since then many travellers have arrived to visit and examine the ruin of the world’s largest temple dedicated to Apollo. The excavations continue to this very day and have brought to light more buildings within the last number of years; for example the theatre and the temple of Artemis.
Ulf Weber collaborated on the research of the sanctuary of Apollo for many years. Now, for the first time he presents all of the most distinguished and important scholars reaching Didyma since the fifteenth century. During the writing process several new discoveries of the history of research were yielded and even some additional material on the sanctuary of Apollo itself. Various unpublished drawings and photos are included.
The history of research is presented chronologically in which the buildings, history and religion of Didyma are deeply embedded. In doing so, the author describes the current state of research of the German excavations.
Many, partly amusing, episodes of those travellers and scientists involved bring this significant piece of culture and research history to life.

Το 1972 οι αρχαιολόγοι Βαγγέλης και Όλγα Κακαβογιάννη αποκάλυψαν ένα ζευγάρι αρχαϊκών επιτύμβιων αγαλμάτων, έναν κούρο και μια κόρη (τη γνωστή «Φρασί-
κλεια»). Η ανακάλυψη οδήγησε στη διαπίστωση ότι οι αρχαϊκοί αττικοί επιτύμβιοι κούροι είχαν «ενταφιαστεί» συνειδητά τα αρχαία χρόνια, γεγονός στο οποίο οφείλεται η εξαιρετική διατήρησή τους έως τις μέρες μας. Στο παρόν άρθρο διατυπώνεται μια ερμηνεία διαφορετική από αυτήν που είναι αποδεκτή σήμερα από την επιστημονική κοινότητα, και επιβεβαιώνεται αρχαιολογικά ένα σημαντικό διαχρονικό φαινόμενο σχετικό με τις επαναστατικές μεταρρυθμιστικές κοινωνικές αλλαγές. Συζητιέται, επίσης, το παρόμοιο φαινόμενο καλής διατήρησης των αρχαϊκών επιτύμβιων αγαλμάτων σε άλλους τόπους εκτός της Αττικής (πιθανότατα, επίσης, λόγω συνειδητού «ενταφιασμού») και διατυπώνεται η υπόθεση ότι και εκεί συνέβησαν παρόμοια κοινωνικο-πολιτικά φαινόμενα. Στο πρώτο τμήμα του άρθρου, περιγράφεται και καταδικάζεται το εγκληματικό φαινόμενο της αρχαιοκαπηλίας, η οποία για πολλές δεκαετίες εμπόδιζε τη δυνατότητα συναγωγής ιστορικών συμπερασμάτων γιατί, εκτός από την επιστημονική ανασκαφή του Βαγγέλη και της
Όλγας, όλα τα άλλα μεγάλα επιτύμβια αγάλματα της Αττικής έφτασαν στα μουσεία του κόσμου ως προϊόντα αρχαιοκαπηλίας.