Patronage (History)

Essays in Honour of Prof. Hampa Nagarajaiah's Promotion of Jain Studies, edited by Christine Chojnacki and Basile Leclère, Bengaluru: Sapna Book House (Proceedings of the international workshop "The Constitution of a Literary Legacy and the Tradition of Patronage in Jainism" organized by Christine Chojnacki and Basile Leclère at Lyon 3 University, France,  15-17 September 2016).

En los reales monasterios, los monarcas no sólo proyectaron su poder, sino que redujeron el de la nobleza y los prelados seculares a través de las fundaciones monásticas, la concesión de privilegios y la participación en las reformas. Se sirvieron de los mismos para dar solución a las despoblaciones y allí se albergaron los reyes y sus huéspedes y se celebraron ceremonias políticas. Los religiosos ocuparon cargos cortesanos, ejercieron como embajadore y colaboraron en los episodios bélicos.

In royal monasteries, monarchs not only projected their power, but they also reduced that of nobility and secular prelates through monastic foundations, the granting of privileges and their participation in reforms. Monarchs saw monasteries as a solution to depopulation, and in them kings and their guests were housed, and political ceremonies were held. Religious men occupied posts at court, served as ambassadors and participated in military confrontations

The aim of this paper is to demonstrate that roman patronage, as antiutilitarian phenomenon, fairly follow the gift theory by Marcel Mauss.
In the first part of the paper, I will briefly explain the evolution of the patronage phenomenon inside the roman society. Following the studies of Richard Saller we can observe that the Roman patronage is a dependence relationship between people, in which there is a reciprocal exchange of goods and services that persist through the time. Furthermore, this relation must be absolutely asymmetric, in the sense that the two parties must come from two different social classes and they must offer appropriate goods and services according to the position that they occupy in the society. If we assume this definition, we can identify four different kind of patronage rapports in the roman society: patronus-cliens, patronus-libertus, the juridical patronage and the collective patronage. Therefore, in this first part I will explain all of these different kind of relationships.
In the second part, I will try to define the social role of patronage in the Roman Empire with the help of the histoire comparée postulate, inter alia, by Marc Bloch. This method also permits an anthropological approach to the topic, since dependant relationships are inborn in every human society. Here, for example, I will compare the social role of potlatch in the Kwakiutl communities of the North America, well described by Franz Boas, and the patronage relationships in the Roman society. I will explain the similarity of the both systems: for example they are strongly based on the idea of reciprocity and they are mainly out of the codified laws of the two societies.
In the third and last part, I will conclude that different phenomena regulate the role of the people inside the human societies, but all this phenomena mainly follow the guidelines postulated by Marcel Mauss in his work essai sur le don: give-receive-reciprocate. In this paper, I choose to compare the Roman patronage with the potlatch system, but we can find similar phenomena in every societies for example in the feudal system or in the Mafia model or even more in the kula ceremony. In this way, I will try to define the important social role that the patronage relationships had in the Roman society. Maybe this approach could be advantageous also to inspect the general human behaviours.

Nicholas Eckstein's Painted Glories: The Brancacci Chapel in Renaissance Florence extricates this intensely studied monument from preoccupations characteristic of traditional art history: patronage, connoisseurship, style, conservation history, technique, and materials. This is notable because all these topics have prompted an extensive scholarship. Giorgio Vasari oriented the chapel to the future and drew a line from the Brancacci frescoes to those by Michelangelo at the Sistine chapel, marking a new tradition of excellence and modernity in Florentine art. Eckstein's orientation is to the past, and his goal is to understand the chapel as an expression of the multifaceted identity of the Carmelite order in Florence well before the painting of the mesmerizing frescoes in the 1420s and 1480s. His chapters seek to reconstruct not only the (much­altered) church of Santa Maria del Carmine as it stood in the fifteenth century but also the neighborhood around it. Felice Brancacci, patron of the decorative program, appears as an early focal point, but the book progressively widens its lens to consider the chapel as the possession of many communities. Eckstein does not attempt to penetrate the walls of the chapel and explore a new spatial clarity and psychological intensity in narrative painting. Rather, his analysis encompasses a wide range of ways that contemporaries approached, regarded, and used the chapel. The Brancacci chapel is for him a means to gain insight into the spiritual life of San Frediano, a gritty, working­class neighborhood, and the frescoes are the product of monks and artisans, patrician families, and widows of modest means. In fact the book's title does not reference the frescoes at all, but is rather a metaphor Felice Brancacci used to describe the Sultan's court in Cairo. The first chapter traces the origins and history of the Carmelite order in Florence and highlights the status of Peter as the apostle to whom contemporaries looked as an exemplar of bedrock faith but also fear and self­doubt. Eckstein reconstructs the interior of the Carmine chapel by chapel as a network of devotional micro­zones, with a fine­ grained attention to family patronage. The modern tourist makes a beeline for the Masaccio frescoes through a separate entrance. Eckstein is at pains to demonstrate how deeply imbricated the Brancacci chapel was within the interior of the Carmine, where many sacred spaces interpenetrated and overlapped. While the Carmelites could not ask for a clearer symbolic expression of their deep identification with the Roman papacy, the Brancacci frescoes also operated within an elitist ideology of leading citizens asserting their authority and control. Eckstein argues, not altogether persuasively, that the compelling scenes of Peter healing the sick and ministering to the socially marginal would have been for the Brancacci a reassuring alternative to the threat of social chaos and revolt. Virtues of the book—its widely dispersed attention and refusal to grant a privileged voice to the artists, order, or the patron in generating meaning—also hamper the advancement of a propulsive and coherent argument. Major claims about how the Brancacci frescoes must have functioned within the cultural imaginary of Florence in the turbulent 1420s startlingly appear at the end of the first chapter but seem disembodied and poorly founded in the shadowy figure of Felice Brancacci, as if they have wandered in from another kind of book. The abrupt swerve into a hard­edged, socially oppositional interpretive mode of setting the frescoes against their orthodox Christian iconography departs as suddenly as it arrives, and the book resumes its stately pace and broad­based texture.

Gregorio Allegri
Opere Inedite dai manoscritti della Collectio Altaemps
Musica Flexanima Ensemble

Dir Fabrizio Bigotti
Tactus Records 2014

Review with five stars by DAVID PONSFORD for the American Journal CHOIR AND ORGAN (May 2015):

Apart from the famous Miserere, Allegri’s other works are relatively unknown. Furthermore, the director of this ensemble of strings, cornetts, sackbuts, voices, lutes and organ, has edited and prepared no fewer than ten ‘new’ pieces that were included in the collection belonging to Duke Altemps, rediscovered in 1992 and recorded for the first time. Besides Allegri, composers include Bonomi and Anerio, all of whose canzonas and motets are excellently played and sung. Of special interest is Allegri’s Missa ‘In lectulo meo’for eight voices, based on Bonomi’s motet of the same name, and Lamentationes Jeremiae prophetae for four voices.


Review by JOHAN VAN VEEN for MUSICA DEI DONUM (February 2015):

...There can be no doubt that this is a most interesting disc which should contribute to the creation of a more differentiated picture of Allegri as a composer. In his moving back and forth between the "stile antico" and the "stile moderno" he was a precursor of many Roman composers of later generations who had to obey the ecclesiastical preference for the style of which Palestrina was the ultimate model. Even Alessandro Scarlatti composed some of his sacred music in this style. The Musica Flexanima Ensemble delivers fine performances. The singers have nice voices and create an optimum transparency. Bigotti rightly decided not to perform these works in the style of the 16th century, for instance in regard to dynamics. The instrumental pieces also receive good performances.

Creative Writing programmes in universities now offer both an education for and employment to literary writers. This papers asks how literary writers apprehend their relatively recently institutionalised position, as university staff and students. The concept of 'patronage', it is argued, offers a useful way into reflecting upon such academic institutionalisation. The argument is presented in three parts. The first outlines some of the conceptual nuances of patronage. The second examines the oft made claim that universities extend patronage to literary writers by enabling employment as Creative Writing staff. The third part engages with a question: what precisely does a student expect to gain from a Creative Writing programme and what does the degree validate? It is suggested that Creative Writing programmes are designed principally to offer supportive patronage, with a promise-but without guarantees-of entry into a financial patronage system. A brief conclusion considers the bearing of these arguments on Creative Writing as a school subject.

https://courtauld.ac.uk/research/courtauld-books-online/gothic-architecture-in-spain-invention-and-imitation

Despite the considerable quantity of colleges built across Europe in the fifteenth century, no standard typology had been established when in the 1480s Alonso de Burgos, bishop of Palencia, decided to endow his great foundation in Valladolid, the College of San Gregorio (Fig. 7.1). Yet, as I will show, the layout of this purpose-built Dominican college differs significantly from other university buildings in late Gothic Castile. It was probably planned by the knowledgeable and experienced architect Juan Guas, who devised a new distribution of rooms based on a ‘double-L’ structure. Moreover, in order to meet the needs of the students and ensure the preservation of his own memory, Alonso de Burgos provided his foundation with the best artists in Castile, who lavished the college with a façade that truly celebrates inventio, and a magnificent decorative scheme that makes it one of the most important late Gothic buildings in Castile.

Focusing exclusively on external forces risks producing an over-generalized account of a ubiquitous neoliberalism, which insufficiently accounts for the profusion of local variegations that currently comprise the neoliberal project as a series of articulations with existing political economic circumstances. Although neoliberal economics were initially promoted in the global south through the auspices of structural adjustment programs designed by the International Financial Institutions, powerful global south elites were only too happy to oblige. Neoliberalism frequently reveals opportunities for well-connected government officials to informally control market and material rewards, allowing them to easily line their own pockets. It is in this sense of the local appropriation of neoliberal ideas that scholars must go beyond conceiving of ‘neoliberalism-in-general’ as a singular and fully realized policy regime, ideological form, or regulatory framework, and work towards conceiving a plurality of ‘actually existing neoliberalisms’ with particular characteristics arising from mutable geohistorical outcomes that are embedded within national, regional, and local process of market-driven socio-spatial transformation. What constitutes ‘actually existing’ neoliberalism in Cambodia as distinctly Cambodian is the ways in which the patronage system has allowed local elites to co-opt, transform, and (re)articulate neoliberal reforms through a framework that ‘asset strips’ public resources, thereby increasing peoples’ exposure to corruption, coercion, and violence. It is to such an 'articulation agenda' that this article attends, as in seeking to provide a more nuanced reading to recent work on neoliberalism in Cambodia by outlining some of its salient characteristics, I reveal a more empirical basis to theorizations of ‘articulated neoliberalism’.

Los arzobispos toledanos Alonso de Fonseca y Ulloa (1475-1534) y Juan Pardo Tavera (1472-1545) formaron parte de los círculos más íntimos de la Corona y disfrutaron de una posición privilegiada. Ambos ejercieron como mecenas musicales y legisladores de la Iglesia, ocupando los mas altos cargos gubernativos que dirigían las tendencias culturales e ideológicas propuestas desde el poder. La tesis doctoral dirigida por Tess Knighton y Álvaro Torrente en la universidad Complutense de Madrid analiza el papel de estas grandes personalidades en relación a la música y la influencia que tuvieron en el pensamiento musical de la España de la primera mitad del siglo XVI. El estudio examina también algunas de las corrientes estético-musicales que tuvieron lugar en la península ibérica con anterioridad al Concilio de Trento tras los intentos de reforma eclesiástica de Alonso Tostado o Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros. Mientras las discusiones tridentinas han sido tratadas con profusión en relación a su proyección musical, los estudios sobre los años inmediatamente anteriores al Concilio no suelen incluir las diversas tendencias existentes dentro del pensamiento religioso que ya se dejaban sentir en las distintas diócesis españolas y cuál era su influencia en la actividad musical. Por último, se analiza la participación y el cometido de la música en el ritual toledano de la primera mitad del siglo XVI y el grado de influencia que ejerció sobre otras sedes. La Santa Iglesia Catedral Primada de Toledo era una institución especialmente rica y sólida que se proclamaba como un modelo sobre las demás con anterioridad a la construcción del edificio actual iniciado en 1227. Fue necesario estudiar los puntos comunes y las diferencias ceremoniales (tanto respecto a los territorios que pertenecían a su provincia eclesiástica como respecto a los exteriores) para conocer mejor el papel de la iglesia toledana y su influencia durante el siglo XVI. La franja cronológica escogida para el análisis comprende la etapa en la que los arzobispos Fonseca y Tavera gobernaron la archidiócesis primada: desde 1523 hasta 1545, un periodo que constituyó el punto culminante de sus carreras religiosas. El mismo año en que moría el cardenal Tavera, comenzaron las reuniones tridentinas en las que se debatieron y consideraron algunas de las polémicas musicales que se encuentran presentes en la documentación coetánea a los pontífices.

In this article, I examine how the apocryphal Acts of John depicts wealthy Christian converts as part of the “Christianization” of Ephesus. I note how the Acts of John uses its portrayal of leading citizens not only to critique, but to preserve and adapt prevailing expectations surrounding Greco-Roman cultic patronage. My analysis comprises two parts. In the first part, I discuss the ways in which the Acts of John undermines prevalent Greco-Roman practices of benefaction. I note that the Acts of John criticizes monetary offerings as part of cultic “exchanges,” and thus indirectly condemns the patronage of religious institutions by wealthy benefactors. Relatedly, the Acts of John’s portrait scene, most often analyzed for
its witness to early Christian aniconism, challenges Greco-Roman patronage norms by questioning the propriety of dedicatory portraits. In the second part, I track the ways in which the Acts of John preserves and adapts prevailing modes of ancient benefaction. Specifically, the Acts of John positions domestic hospitality as the primary means by which wealthy converts ought to support the Christian mission.Taken together, my two-part examination establishes that the Acts of John both challenges and redirects prevailing practices of Greco-Roman patronage as part of a broader articulation of proper Christian piety.

Portugal was not always the best place for poets in the sixteenth century. Against the backdrop of an expanding empire, the country's annexation by Spain in 1580, and ongoing religious controversy, poets struggled to articulate their worth to rulers and patrons. This did not prevent them, however, from persisting in their craft. Indeed, many of their works reflected precisely on the question of what poetry could do and what, ultimately, its value was. The answers that poets like Luís de Camões, Francisco de Sá de Miranda, António Ferreira, and Diogo Bernardes offered to these questions, and which are explored in this book, ranged from lofty ideals to the more practical concerns of making ends meet when one depended on the whims of the powerful.

This volume articulates a 'pragmatics of poetry' that combines literary analysis and book history with methods from sociology (network analysis, sociology of professions, valuation studies) to explore how poets thought about themselves and negotiated the value of their verse in the court, with patrons, or in the marketplace for books. It reveals how poets compared their work to that of lawyers and doctors and tried to set themselves apart as a special group of professionals. It shows how they threatened their patrons as well as flattered them and tried to turn their poetry from a gift into something like a commodity or service that had to be paid for. While poets set out to write in the most ambitious genres and to better their European rivals, they sometimes refused to spend months composing an epic without the prospect of reward. Their books of verse, when printed, were framed as linguistic propaganda as well as objects of material and aesthetic worth at a time when many said that non-devotional poetry was a sinful waste of time. This is a book about the various ways in which poets, metaphorically and more literally, tried to turn poetry and the paper it was written on into gold.

Reflections on the art market and cultural value in the light of Leonardo Da Vinci’s "Salvator Mundi", recently sold at auction. This reading explores materialist and capitalist issues alongside the spiritual and aesthetic dimension of painting and sculpture. A grotesque interpretation reveals the double standards that dominate collecting, patronage, and the contemporary arts scene.

2016 MICH. ST. L. REV. (2016)

In this work, I discuss the tension between gift and market economy throughout the history of creativity. For millennia, the production of creative artifacts has lain at the intersection between gift and market economy. Today, after a long unchallenged dominance of the market, gift economy is re-gaining momentum in the digital society. The anthropological and sociological studies of gift exchange, such as Marcel Mauss’ The Gift, served to explain the phenomenon of open source software and hacker communities. Later, communities of social trust, such as Wikipedia, YouTube, and fan-fiction communities, spread virally online through gift exchange models.

Anthropologists placed societies on an economic evolutionary scale from gift to commodity exchange, in a continuum from the clan system to the class system and the capitalist system of organization. I suggest that that continuum should now extend to the “crowd society,” which features new modes of social interaction in digital online communities. The networked, open and mass-collaborative character of the crowd society enhances the proliferativeness of the gift exchange model that lies in what anthropologists and social scientists described as a debt-economy.

The exploration of the creative mechanics of online communities put under scrutiny the validity of utilitarian theories of copyright and traditional market economy models. From Émile Durkheim and Mauss to Alain Caillé, anti-utilitarian thought designed a new political economy that defines humans as a “cooperative species,” rather than Homo economicus. In this context, I look into commons theory, through the lens of Elinor Ostrom’s work, and its application to modern commons-based peer production with special emphasis on Yochai Benkler and Jerome Reichman’s work. In conclusion, I evoke Jean Baudrillard’s essential question: “Will we return, one day, beyond the market economy, to prodigality?”

This article is devoted to the treatise Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl’insetti (‘Experiments on the generation of insects’) published in 1668 by Francesco Redi. The latter is today celebrated as the first scientist to have experimentally disproved the thousand-year belief in spontaneous generation, a theory commonly attributed to Aristotle. 
In the introduction, I present Redi and his treatise: Redi spent his whole life at the Medici court as personal physician of the Grand Duke of Tuscany and attended the Accademia del Cimento (‘The Academy of Experiment’), the scientific society founded by the Grand Duke Ferdinand II and his brother Leopoldo to make Galileo's legacy revive. The Esperienze is not written in Latin, but in the vernacular, while the introduction to the treatise displays a plea for experimental method that is today considered a manifesto of New Science.
I start analysing Aristotle’s definition of ‘spontaneous generation’, pointing out how, according to the Stagirite, spontaneous generation is an exceptional sort of generation, exclusively due to material principles and occurring by chance, that is, without a formal principle (semen, egg). Then, I remark that Redi’s target is not Aristotle’s explication for spontaneous generation. In fact, no critic has ever noticed that in his treatise Redi polemically hints (albeit in very allusive manner) to contemporary theories on spontaneous generation, namely the ones by Fortunio Liceti and Pierre Gassendi.
Redi is mostly known for the experiment of the sealed jars with which he would have demonstrated that rotten meat doesn’t breed maggots and, more broadly, that living beings are always generated by parents. However, I stress some important inconsistencies in Redi’s experimental accounts. For instance, he claims that eggs laid by flies on rotten meat are perfectly visible to the unaided eye. They look exactly like small bird eggs, complete with shell and albumen. He even reports that, after the hatching, one will find the empty shells of fly eggs. I suggest that with his narration Redi is not giving us an objective scientific account, but rather trying to disproof the most advanced theories on spontaneous generation of his time. As for the above-mentioned example, I think that Redi’s insistence on the visibility of fly eggs was dictated by the desire to contrast Gassendi, according to whom spontaneous generation is due to invisible primordial seeds floating in the air.
In the second part of his treatise, Redi deals with parasites that apparently originate from living beings (plants, animals). Redi argues that in this case it is the soul of the host organism that generates the insects (zoogenetic theory). For instance, as for gall-flies, he considers galls as eggs laid by plants and gall-flies as the genuine offspring of the plants. Critics have suggested different explanations to justify such a shocking stance supported by the man today celebrated as ‘the father of experimental biology’. I examine Redi’s theory on gall-flies and come to the conclusion that, again, to fully understand Redi’s treatise we need to situate it in the context of the contemporary debate on spontaneous generation. More specifically, we need to concretely situate it in the context of the Medici court. Thanks to Redi’s private correspondence, we know that Leopoldo de’ Medici endorsed the zoogenetic theory – that actually is not even an original elaboration by Redi.
Further, by thoroughly analysing Redi’s version of the zoogenetic theory, I show how the Tuscan naturalist tried to accord it with the principle of parental generation that he had firmly asserted in the first part of his treatise. In fact, Redi tries to establish a regular correspondence between plants and insects, that is, that each plant has its specific parasite. Moreover, he insists on the non-casual nature of such generations. In this manner, he presents the generation of insects from plants as perfectly regular from an Aristotelian point of view, that is, as non-spontaneous.
In the conclusions, I underline Redi’s ability in fashioning himself as a modern scientist, a posture he assumed in all probability to appeal the taste of his patrons. However, I also underline how historiography has tended to focus on Redi’s aspects that are best suitable to our scientific culture, neglecting the polemical essence of the Esperienze as well as Redi debt towards the Aristotelian tradition.

Pour les amateurs de figures de style, le cas de Mécène est un exemple particulièrement évocateur d’antonomase, si ancien et si répandu dans la plupart des langues vernaculaires occidentales (sauf l’anglais) qu’il s’est décliné en un mot, le mécénat, désignant l’action même au-delà de l’individu, et que l’usage a fini par émousser le souvenir de son origine historique – Gaius Cilnius Maecenas, ce chevalier romain qui fut l’un des proches d’Auguste.  Si l’histoire et la signification du terme peuvent à première vue sembler évidentes, les étapes de sa mutation en un nom commun et le contenu symbolique de cette mutation n’ont en réalité guère fait l’objet d’investigations poussées, et l’on se limite bien souvent à partir du fait accompli qu’à l’époque moderne, le « mécène » est le modèle sociopolitique par excellence du patron des Arts et des Lettres.  Nous voudrions apporter ici quelques éclairages autour de ce qui paraît être un moment important des processus conjoints d’idéalisation historique et de banalisation lexicale de la figure de Mécène en un cliché chargé de sens, à savoir le siècle et demi de floraison de l’humanisme (grosso modo, les années 1360-1510), en nous concentrant sur le territoire qui fut son berceau, l’Italie.

Oxford, Oxford-Sciences Po Research Group, decembrer 2011, 14 p. on ligne <http://www.politics.ox.ac.uk/materials/centres/oxpo/working-papers/wp_10-11/OXPO_10-11f_Cahen.pdf> (working paper OXPO_10-11f).
Written version of a paper delivered at the African History & Politics Seminar, 21 February 2011, directed by William Beinart (Professor of Race Relations, St Antony's College), Department of Politics & International Relations, African Studies Centre and Oxford Research Network on Governance in Africa (Orenga).
Abstract: Renamo has been the subject of controversy since it was created, no doubt by the Rhodesian secret services, and, afterwards, supported by apartheid South Africa to counter the " Marxist-Leninist " Frelimo single-party regime. Nevertheless, by winning more than one-third of the votes in the first pluralist elections of 1994, Renamo proved that it had a social base. After a huge increase in 1999, Renamo was harshly defeated in the 2004 and 2009 elections. Few studies have been produced from field research within Renamo, which is the case of this article based on former field research in 1994, 2000, and more recently 2006, 2007 and 2009. It aims to study the main reasons behind this inability to build an opposition political party capable of mobilizing people against the arbitrary rule of State neo-patrimonialism. Two main reasons are identified: first, in spite of becoming a civilian party, Renamo has maintained a military-style internal rule, in which nobody can develop their own agency; second, Renamo tries to mimic Frelimo, developing a poor form of clientelism when Frelimo is able to develop a rich one, closely linked with State patronage. Renamo has not been able to develop through day-today activity of a " trade-unionism " kind, mobilizing people to demand rights within the Republic rather than favours from the Master.

Patronage, in its broadest sense, has been established as one of the dominant social processes of pre-industrial Europe. While it has been traditionally viewed simply as the context for extraordinary artistic creativity, patronage has more recently been examined by historians and art historians alike as a comprehensive system of patron-client structures which permeated society and social relations. Focusing specifically on the city of Florence, these essays explore the new understanding of Renaissance Italy as a 'patronage society,' considering its implications for the study of art patronage and patron-client structures wherever they occur.

A critical view from history and political anthropology allows for a revision the concept of oriental despotism, as it has been attached to the socio-political organization of Middle Eastern societies, referring to ancient times and modern as well. Thus, this critical view enables a deconstruction of the myth of oriental despotism, placing it within its historical context and finding its origin in Western elaborations, especially modern Europe’s liberal political philosophy. Also, a critical perspective from the political anthropology of the Middle East is proposed, dealing with patronage bondings and patrimonial structures, in order to understand the socio-political order of traditional Middle Eastern societies.

The Patria is a fascinating four-book collection of short historical notes, stories, and legends about the buildings and monuments of Constantinople, compiled in the late tenth century by an anonymous author who made ample use of older sources. It also describes the foundation and early (pre-Byzantine) history of the city, and includes the Narrative on the Construction of Hagia Sophia, a semi-legendary account of Emperor Justinian I’s patronage of this extraordinary church (built between 532 and 537). The Patria constitutes a unique record of popular traditions about the city, especially its pagan statues, held by its medieval inhabitants. At the same time it is the only Medieval Greek text to present a panorama of the city as it existed in the middle Byzantine period. Despite its problems of historical reliability, the Patria is still one of our main guides for the urban history of medieval Constantinople. This translation makes the entire text of the Patria accessible in English for the first time.

Mughal Architecture  is a reference work  on  one of the most  important  building styles of world  architecture including such famous buildings as the  tomb of Humayun in Delhi,  the Taj Mahal in Agra, and the palaces and mosques in Agra, Delhi, Fatehpur Sikri, Kashmir and Lahore.  First published in 1991  it is the first comprehensive synthesis covering the whole range of Mughal architecture,  an  analysis of    building types,  architectural elements, gardens and cityscapes  in their historical  contexts  under  consideration of  their ideological  and symbolic significance.  It provides a  richly- illustrated survey of the history of Mughal architecture and the various traditions, Central-Asian Timurid, Indian, Iranian and European, which were  fused together to create this universal  style, characterized by  its  clear rationality and  aesthetic appeal. The numerous photographs and measured  scale drawings, many  of buildings  which have never  before  been surveyed, are  the result of the author's  fieldwork in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh as well as in Central Asia and Iran.  The book was reprinted in 2002 and republished in a revised edition in 2004. This is a scan of  the first 1991 edition put on line by the  Archaeological Survey of India.

Much music would never had existed had it not been for  the patronage of the court and church, and this effected the music composed. Composers had to conform in terms of style and form, but unlike today, most composers in the baroque period were employed by patrons of the arts, the church and the courts. (Bachus 2006, p8). The job required they compose frequently.
There is an abundance of music from the baroque period that we enjoy today thanks to the patronage of church and courts.